Infrastructure & Equipment – our leading technologies

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Infrastructure & Equipment – our leading technologies

Raw Material Processing, Chemical Analysis, Formulation Preparation

Cell and Tissue Cultures, Molecular Biology, Gene Expression, Genetics

Biochemical and Functional Analysis

General Lab Equipment

We are committed to creating a tailored solution that precisely meets your needs.

Feel free to reach out to us:

Scientific Director: Dr. Navit Ogen-Shtern navit@adssc.org

Study Director: Dr. Tomer Katoshevski tomer@adssc.org

Operative Manager: Oren Raz, Eng., M.Sc. oren@adssc.org

What does SPF mean?

SPF stands for Sun Protection Factor. It is a measure of how well a material or compound (can be tested as liquid, formulation or in solid state; most commonly as sunscreen product) protects the skin from harmful UVB (ultraviolet B) rays, which are primarily responsible for causing sunburn and contributing to skin cancer development. SPF is a numerical rating system that indicates the level of protection provided by a material or product against UVB radiation.

The SPF value represents the amount of UVB radiation required to cause sunburn on skin protected with the tested material compared to unprotected skin. For example, if an individual typically experiences sunburn after 10 minutes of sun exposure without protection, applying sunscreen (for example) with SPF 15 would theoretically provide protection equivalent to 15 times longer exposure, or 150 minutes (10 minutes x 15 SPF).

How to label a product with SPF value?

SPF (Sun Protection Factor) is calculated based on laboratory testing that compares the time it takes for skin to burn when exposed to known doses of UV radiation with and without sunscreen. According to the guidelines established by the related cosmetic regulatory agencies (such as the FDA, EC, etc.), labeling a product with its SPF rating is permitted only after valid cosmetic clinical trials have been conducted.

It is important to note that SPF primarily measures protection against UVB radiation, which causes sunburn, but does not necessarily provide information about protection against UVA (ultraviolet A) radiation, which contributes to skin aging and can also cause skin damage. However, sunscreen products labeled as “broad-spectrum” provide protection against both UVA and UVB radiation. Additionally, SPF values indicate the level of protection against erythema (sunburn) and may not fully reflect protection against other forms of skin damage caused by UV radiation such as DNA damage.

How to rate the SPF in vitro?

Rating SPF in vitro entails laboratory testing to assess the effectiveness of a sunscreen product in protecting against UVB radiation. In vitro SPF testing evaluates the sunscreen’s capacity to absorb or scatter UV radiation, thereby impeding its penetration into the skin and averting sunburn.

In the process of developing a new product or sun protection technology, as well as when researching new materials, it is crucial to assess the tested item’s ability to protect against UV radiation accurately, efficiently, and swiftly. In vitro results must reliably predict the SPF values that will be obtained from clinical trials at the end of the process.

In the past, various methods were employed to assess the SPF values of materials in laboratory settings. However, many of these methods were found to be inaccurate or unreliable compared to in vivo tests. Furthermore, they were often limited to specific types of samples, such as liquids only, and most importantly, they could not predict the valid SPF value obtained from in vivo tests. Nowadays, highly reliable and user-friendly SPF analyzers are widely used for this purpose, offering accurate and predictive results.

SPF analyzer

An SPF analyzer, also known as a spectrophotometer or UV spectrometer, is a specialized instrument used to measure the Sun Protection Factor (SPF) of sunscreen products. These analyzers are designed to determine the effectiveness of sunscreen in protecting the skin against UVB (ultraviolet B) radiation, which is responsible for causing sunburn and contributing to skin cancer development.

SPF analyzers are essential tools used by manufacturers, regulatory agencies, and quality control laboratories to ensure the effectiveness and compliance of sunscreen products with SPF labeling requirements. They play a crucial role in assessing the photo-protective properties of sunscreen formulations and guiding the development of new sunscreen products with improved sun protection capabilities.

SPF analyzers operate based on the principle of spectrophotometry, which involves measuring the absorbance or transmission of light at specific wavelengths.

Here is how an SPF analyzer typically works:

Sample Preparation: A sample of the sunscreen product is applied to a designated transparent substrate, in a uniform layer. The substrate simulates the surface of the skin.
UV Radiation Source: The sample is exposed to a controlled source of UV radiation, typically from a solar simulator or a xenon arc lamp. The UV radiation simulates natural sunlight and is calibrated to emit specific wavelengths corresponding to UVB radiation.
Measurement of Transmittance: The SPF analyzer measures the amount of UV radiation transmitted through the sunscreen-coated substrate. This is done by analyzing the intensity of light passing through the sample at various wavelengths within the UVB range.
Calculation of SPF: Based on the measured transmittance values, the analyzer calculates the SPF of the sunscreen product using mathematical formulas and algorithms. The SPF value represents the level of protection provided by the sunscreen against UVB radiation.
Data Analysis and Reporting: The SPF analyzer generates a report indicating the SPF value of the sunscreen product, as well as any other relevant parameters such as broad-spectrum protection and statistics. This information is used for product labeling and regulatory compliance.

How to determine the UVA protection factor?

Determining the UVA protection factor (UVA-PF) of a sunscreen involves laboratory testing to assess the product’s effectiveness in protecting against UVA (ultraviolet A) radiation. Unlike SPF, which primarily measures protection against UVB radiation, UVA-PF focuses on protection against the longer wavelength UVA rays, which contribute to skin aging and can cause skin damage.

There are several methods for determining UVA-PF, including in vitro and in vivo tests. One commonly used method is the in vitro method recommended by regulatory agencies such as the FDA and the EC.

Here is a general overview of the in vitro method for determining UVA-PF:

The sample is prepared similarly to the SPF (UVB) test.
Then, the test sample is exposed to a controlled dose of UVA radiation from a solar simulator, which emits UVA radiation with a specific wavelength range (typically around 320-400 nanometers).
After exposure to UVA radiation, the amount of UVA radiation absorbed by the sunscreen is measured using spectrophotometric techniques. This involves analyzing the transmission spectrum of the sunscreen across the UVA wavelength range and calculating the percentage of UVA radiation absorbed.
UVA-PF is calculated based on the percentage of UVA radiation absorbed by the sunscreen compared to a reference substance with known UVA protection properties. The UVA-PF value represents the level of protection provided by the sunscreen against UVA radiation. The UVA-PF value obtained from testing is validated and used to determine the UVA protection rating of the sunscreen product. The product is then labeled with the appropriate UVA-PF value, indicating the level of protection it provides against UVA radiation.

It’s important to note that UVA-PF testing methods may vary depending on regulatory requirements and guidelines in different regions. Additionally, sunscreen products labeled as “broad-spectrum” provide protection against both UVA and UVB radiation, offering comprehensive sun protection.

Also good to know:

– SPF 15: Provides moderate protection against UVB rays. Suitable for everyday use and moderate sun exposure.

– SPF 30: Provides high protection against UVB rays. Recommended for extended outdoor activities and prolonged sun exposure.

– SPF 50 or higher: Provides very high protection against UVB rays. Recommended for intense sun exposure, such as during outdoor sports or at the beach.

– How to use it? It’s essential to apply sunscreen generously and reapply it frequently, especially after swimming, sweating, or towel drying, as well as to use other sun protection measures such as seeking shade, wearing protective clothing, and avoiding sun exposure during peak hours (10 a.m. to 4 p.m.).

What do we offer?

Our lab is equipped with the state-of-the-art SPF-290AS™ Testing and UV Transmittance Analyzer System, combined with the 16S-Series Pre-Irradiation Solar Simulator™, both manufactured by SolarLight, USA. This system is designed to enhance the in vitro determination of SPF and UVA-PF values for a wide range of cosmetic products during the R&D process. It offers exceptional accuracy, reliability, robustness, and cost-effectiveness.

Test items can range from liquids (such as plant extracts) to various formulations and even textile samples. Optional substrates for testing include standardized PMMA plates or Transpore strips. A detailed report is generated for each test, encompassing in vitro SPF, UVA-PF, UVB/UVA ratio, critical wavelength, and other relevant parameters.

Our team possesses extensive experience in in vitro SPF testing.

The device is meticulously maintained and calibrated regularly in accordance with the manufacturer’s guidelines and directives.

What does “transdermal permeability” mean?

Transdermal permeability refers to the ability of a substance to pass through the skin and enter the bloodstream or underlying tissues. The skin, which is the largest organ of the human body, serves as a protective barrier against external substances. However, certain substances, such as drugs or chemicals in skincare products, can penetrate the skin and reach systemic circulation, exerting their effects throughout the body.

Transdermal permeability depends on various factors, including the physicochemical properties of the substance (e.g., molecular size, lipophilicity), the condition of the skin (e.g., hydration, integrity of the stratum corneum), and the formulation of the substance (e.g., cream, gel, patch). Substances with smaller molecular size and higher lipophilicity generally exhibit greater transdermal permeability.

Understanding transdermal permeability is essential in pharmaceutical and cosmetic research for developing transdermal drug delivery systems or optimizing skincare formulations. Techniques such as Franz cell experiments, in vitro skin permeation studies, and in vivo pharmacokinetic studies are commonly used to evaluate transdermal permeability and assess the bioavailability and efficacy of transdermally administered substances.

In some cases, partial transdermal permeability occurs, wherein only a portion of a substance applied to the skin can penetrate through the skin barrier and enter systemic circulation. Alternatively, the substance may permeate only into the skin layers without fully passing into the bloodstream. When developing a cosmetic product, it is crucial to validate that the tested substances remain within the skin layers and that complete transdermal permeability does not occur.

This partial permeability can be influenced by various factors such as:

Physicochemical Properties of the Substance: Substances with specific molecular characteristics, such as size, lipophilicity, and charge, can affect their ability to penetrate the skin barrier. For example, smaller, lipophilic molecules generally have higher permeability compared to larger, hydrophilic molecules.
Skin Barrier Integrity: The outermost layer of the skin, known as the stratum corneum, acts as the primary barrier to transdermal permeation. Any disruptions or damage to this layer can enhance the permeability of substances. Skin conditions such as wounds, dermatitis, or thinning of the skin due to aging can increase partial transdermal permeability.
Formulation Factors: The formulation of a substance can influence its ability to penetrate the skin. For example, certain excipients or penetration enhancers included in topical formulations can improve the permeability of active ingredients by altering the properties of the skin barrier.

Partial transdermal permeability is a critical consideration in pharmaceutical and cosmetic research, as it can affect the efficacy, safety, and pharmacokinetics of transdermally administered substances. Understanding the factors that contribute to partial permeability is essential for optimizing transdermal drug delivery systems and skincare formulations to achieve the desired therapeutic or cosmetic outcomes.

What is the Franz Cell apparatus, and how is it used?

The Franz cell apparatus, also known as the Franz diffusion cell, is a laboratory device commonly used in pharmaceutical and cosmetic research to measure the rate at which a substance permeates through a membrane. It consists of two chambers separated by a semi-permeable membrane, with one chamber, typically filled with the substance to be tested (the donor compartment) and the other chamber filled with a solution that acts as a sink (the receptor compartment). The substance of interest (API) is applied to the donor compartment, and its diffusion through the membrane into the receptor compartment is measured over time. This apparatus is particularly useful for studying the permeability of drugs, skincare ingredients, and other compounds across biological barriers like the skin or commercial membranes. The data obtained from Franz cell experiments can help researchers evaluate the efficacy and safety of various formulations and delivery systems.

How to measure the content of the permeated substances?

Of course, when harvesting the permeation experiment, it is required first to extract the API(s) that are of interest from the receptor buffer and/or from the used membrane (e.g., skin tissue). The appropriate extraction solvent and the extraction conditions (duration, temperature, vortex, etc.) must be decided in advance. Then the samples containing the APIs will be prepared for detection. As for the extraction step, the detection method will also be selected at an early stage of the study.

typical detection methods can be based on colorimetric measurements, fluorescent readings or chromatographic analysis (HPLC).

A calibration curve of each API is generated using a standardized reference. Then, the quantification of the APIs in the samples is calculated accordingly.

What services do we provide?

Our lab is equipped with 15-station (V-Series) Franz Cell Stirrers, manufactured by PermeGear, Inc., USA. This apparatus is connected to a Heater controller and includes 5ml amber glass jacketed diffusion cells. This system is designed to enhance the in vitro evaluation of partial/transdermal permeability for a wide range of cosmetic or pharmaceutical substances and medical devices during the R&D process.

A wide range of Test items can be studied:

Liquids– such as pure APIs, plant extracts, oils

Formulations– such as pastes, creams, viscous compounds, gels

Solid materials– such as powders, granules, pellets

Medical devices– such as bandages, pads,

Dressing and Wearable devices– such as textiles, polymers, rubber

Various types of membranes can be used:

Ex vivo skin tissues– human skin (partial or full thickness), porcine skin (abdomen, back, ear)

Artificial skin membranes– 3D artificial skin samples, commercial skin-mimic membranes

General membranes– polymer sheets, paper sheets

For quantification, we have modern spectrophotometers including fluorescence as well as UHPLC (Dionex) with a 4-channels detector.

Our team possesses extensive experience in in vitro transdermal permeability testing. We provide a multi-layer mass balance analysis (in the case of skin tissues) for your APIs.

Additional key parameters to be considered at an early stage:

When evaluating skin permeability using the Franz cell apparatus, several critical points should be considered to ensure accurate and meaningful results:

Selection of Skin Model: The choice of skin model is crucial. Human or animal skin samples can be used, with human skin being preferred for relevance to clinical applications. The skin should be obtained from a consistent and reliable source and maintained under appropriate storage conditions to preserve its integrity. Artificial membranes that mimic the human skin structure are also can be used.
Mounting of Skin in the Franz Cell: The skin sample should be mounted in the Franz cell apparatus with care to ensure that it is uniformly stretched and secured between the donor and receptor compartments. Any air bubbles or wrinkles in the skin should be avoided as they can affect the diffusion of the test substance.
Temperature and Humidity Control: The Franz cell apparatus should be maintained at a controlled temperature and humidity throughout the experiment to mimic physiological conditions and minimize variability in skin permeability.
Selection of Receptor Buffer: The composition of the receptor medium (i.e., the solution in the receptor compartment) should be carefully chosen to mimic physiological conditions and solubilize the test substance.
Sampling Technique: Sampling intervals and techniques should be standardized to ensure accurate measurement of the test substance’s concentration in the receptor medium over time. A single (end-point) or kinetic (multiple time points) samplings are optional.
Sample extraction: to evaluate the content of the API(s) in the skin layers, the suitable extraction solvent along with the extraction conditions should be carefully chosen based on the physicochemical properties of the API and the skin tissue.
Analytical Method Validation: As a preliminary stage, it is imperative to validate the analytical method employed for quantifying the content of the test substance in collected samples, including those within the receptor and extraction buffers. Validation ensures the accuracy, precision, and sensitivity of the method. High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) stands as a widely favored technique for this purpose due to its robustness and capability to handle complex mixtures. Alternatively, spectrophotometry or fluorescence techniques may also be suitable depending on the specific characteristics of the substance under analysis and the desired level of sensitivity.

The Skin Research Institute

Research topics:

The Skin Research Institute, which is part of the Dead Sea Branch of DSASC, leads applied research and innovative product development for the improved health and function of human skin. Areas of research and development combine cosmetics, dermatology and medicine. The institute’s researchers have extensive experience working with the natural resources unique to the Dead Sea and desert environment, i.e., minerals found in water, soil and air, atmospheric conditions (radiation, oxygen pressure), and endemic medicinal plants.

The flora and fauna of the Dead Sea region are often studied as they have developed special mechanisms for coping with the threats and stressors that are constantly exerted on them by the extreme environment. These stressors include a salt-saturated environment, the very hot and dry climate, scarce fresh water, high ultraviolet radiation and various pests.

The institute’s researchers define skin as the outer surface area of any body, hence research is extended to includes not only human skin but also the skin (or fur) of various animals, the outer microbial coating of desert plants (leaves for instance) and the upper layer of waterbodies such as the Dead Sea itself and the sinkholes that have formed at its shores.

Many studies conducted at the Skin Research Institute and the Dead Sea Branch strive to understand the coping mechanisms of organisms in nature for the benefit of humans. For example, DNA protection and repair mechanisms in halophilic bacteria, and microbial biofilm that forms around the leaves of acacia trees and provides protection from intense solar radiation.

Combining knowledge with innovation – collaborations between scientists developing skin models and microbiologists. Research to examine the feasibility of producing dermatological substances based on bacteria from the environment. In this study, microbiology is applied to experiments using the human skin model.

Areas of expertise and ongoing research:

Investigating the effect of nutrition on skin function;
Locating, isolating and developing natural materials to treat dermatological problems;
Investigating the skin’s natural defense mechanisms against ultraviolet radiation;
Development of unique and innovative models for research based on living human skin tissues (donated from plastic surgery) on three-dimensional structures of artificial skin and isolated skin cells. These models enable to assess the effect of unknown active ingredients on the skin in a wide range of parameters, such as tissue viability assessment, toxicity threshold, easing inflammation, wound healing, skin irritation, oxidants and antioxidants, sun protection, anti-aging, skin permeability, elasticity healing and more;
Development of alternatives to experimenting on animal;
Development of new molecules for dermatological treatments;
Development and establishment of laboratory models based on human tissues for studying burn processes, wounds and treatment;
Discovery of desert and marine plants with beneficial cosmetic or medicinal potential, developing methods for preparing extracts from all parts of the plant, testing the extracts using the various research models to prove the properties of the plants and how they affect the skin. The profound study of herbs, from the basic assessments to the commercialization of products, requires extensive collaborations with scientists specializing in areas such as chemistry, agriculture, botany, business and manufacturing;
Examining the effects of the environment (air pollution, radiation, etc.) and metabolic strains on the skin;
Examining the efficacy and safety of dermo-cosmetic substances and preparations;
Absorption of substances through skin tissues, artificial membranes or other medium;
Examining the effect of active ingredients that protect against skin cancer – inhibiting growth, preventing metastasis growth, invasion to the body’s cells and cell adhesion;
Research and development of cannabis-based products (under the Medical Cannabis Unit of the Ministry of Health).

The Skin Research Institute and its researchers are well equipped with state-of-the-art facilities for working with cell cultures, bacteria, viruses and fungal cells on petri dishes, with human or animal tissue cultures, reconstructed skin systems and more. They have advanced spectrophotometers, plate readers, and UHPLC for biochemical, biological and chemical analyses, a unique SPF / UVAPF device to test the sun-screening capacity of preparations, extracts and fabrics, advanced microscopy including fluorescence, fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS) live cell imaging, and equipment for histology. In addition, UVA, UVB, UVC and IR lamps for studying the effects of solar radiation and protective materials on cultures and tissues are available.

To prepare active ingredients and formulae for research, from plant extracts to final products, the institute’s laboratories are equipped with an innovative system for the parallel production of extracts under different conditions and solvents (ASE350), evaporators, blenders, drying ovens, radiation spectrum meters (natural or artificial) and more.

The institute provides research services for skin health and product development to cosmetics and pharmaceutical industries:

The Skin Research Institute provides research and experimental services for a cost. It also manages diverse collaborations: sale of preclinical research services to cosmetic, dermatology and medical start-ups, based on the extensive knowledge and experience of the staff, using the unique experimental models developed on site, and relying on a very wide range of advanced equipment and world-class technological capabilities. The research team has experience advising and building experimental setups customized for each client’s requirements. The research team is accustomed to leading experiments designed to be presented to relevant regulatory bodies, for patent registration or for business development, and has raised significant funds from investors. The research support team is committed to providing customer service, trial and reporting protocols, accuracy, reliability, discretion and tight schedules. Each research project is led by a PhD level researcher who maintains direct contact with the client. If required, the researchers of the institute consult with associated professional experts, who can provide great added value where needed.

Feel free to contact us for further questions or requests.

Research group:

Leading researcher: Dr. Navit Ogen-Stern

Chief Scientist, Research Services: Dr. Guy Cohen

Operations and business manager: Oren Raz

The team:

Raanan Gvirtz; raanan@adssc.org

PhD candidate – supervisors: Dr. Guy Cohen and Dr. Aryeh Grossman (Bar Ilan University)

Noy Eretz Kdosha; noy@adssc.org

Biology student, research assistant for the pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries

Current research: Drug development using substances that counteract the effects of the environment on the skin

Margarita Yarmanko; margarita@adssc.org

Engineering student, research assistant for the pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries

Research area: Development of skincare products

Microbiology

Research topics:

The microbiology research group focuses its efforts on understanding the physiology and interactions between microorganisms in extreme environmental conditions such as the Dead Sea. The researchers study communities of unique bacteria found in water, soil and plants of arid regions, in attempt to locate and identify bacterial populations that express genes with interesting metabolic activity that may potentially be harnessed for the benefit of mankind and the environment.

In addition, the group is developing microbiological engineering systems designed to improve various processes in a variety of fields, such as: wastewater treatment methods, biofilm development for environments such as the ocean, production of cosmetic products, oral and dental health solutions and more. The preliminary results have shown potential for wide-ranging applications. Collaborations in the field of agriculture are expected to expand.

Another fascinating and challenging research topic is “NewSpace”, a term that emphasizes that space is becoming accessible to more people than ever. More people are expected to work and live in space, in increasing numbers as time progresses, thanks to significantly lower launch costs and new space technologies. The objective of our current project is to support humans living and working in space, especially those in outposts and planetary bases. For the first time ever, in a project currently underway, a unique Space Multi-Species Photobioreactor (SMS-PBR] has been designed, developed and built to enable the utilization of spent rocket fuel, CO₂ and other waste products to produce breathable oxygen and other nutrients. Scientists of the Dead Sea and Arava Science Center are collaborating on this project with Bar-Ilan University, Afeka College and VTS energy Ltd. The SMS-PBR facility will remotely monitor the growth of organisms such as algae, bacteria and even fish. Currently, researchers are studying the toxic space fuel (hydrazine) as a possible nutritional source for bacteria and algae adapted to thrive in extreme conditions. The project includes the detection and development of strains that will be grown in SMS-PBR together with the development of a suitable photobioreactor cell. Researchers are striving to significantly improve waste utilization, the safety and health of staff, and implement efficient resource use while reducing space mission costs. This study was funded by the Israel Space Agency and the Ministry of Science and Technology, Israel. Collaborations are welcome.

Research group:

Leading researcher: Dr. Ashraf Al-Ashhab

The team:

B.Sc. Ibrahim Sharabati (lab Manager)

B.Sc. Kareem Nayrouck (lab technician)

Microbiology and Next Generation Sequencing (NGS) of bacterial communities

Hydrology of desert water and the Dead Sea Basin

Research topics:

Our research focuses on the characterization of stream hydrodynamics and sediment and suspended particle fluxes during flooding of ephemeral streams in arid and semi-arid climates. Although stream sediment transport processes are of great scientific, engineering and environmental importance, very little is known regarding the effect of flash floods with irregular flow patterns on these sediments. Flooding streams in agricultural and inhabited areas, blockages of water reservoirs, transport routes and dams, and the stability of structures within and around flow channels (e.g. collapse of bridges and dams due to flooding) are of particular interest. To learn more, we examine the effects of flow characteristics on particle transport processes. Data for these projects is collected using advanced equipment and methods including geophone, hydrophone, radar speed gun, Large-Scale Particle Image Velocimetry (LSPIV) and three-way velocimeter for high-resolution quantification of flow characteristics, and sediment and suspended particle fluxes.

As part of the study, an innovative method was developed to calibrate the sediment trap data (to monitor particulate fluxes), based on the change in cumulative sediment mass, and not as generally measured according to fixed time intervals. This method reduces background noises during low flow and prevents masking of true data during high flow events. It therefore more accurately represents the temporal changes of sediment fluxes.

Current projects:

· Characterization of hydrodynamics and sediment fluxes in flood surges;

· Using the LSPIV method to determine flow rates in flooding streams;

· The hydrology of the Tze’elim Basin: flow rates, application of an existing hydrological model of the area and working with ICL Dead Sea Works to develop a new flood warning system;

· How the construction of the Dead Sea water pipeline to the ICL plant pools affects the Nahal Tze’elim alluvial fan;

· Live broadcast of flash floods.

The Desert Floods Research Center conducts additional research on hydrology and floods in the desert, and continuously collects data.

Research group:

Lead researcher: Dr. Eran Halafi

The team:

Yaron Nitka-Nakash; yaron@adssc.org

Research technician; hydrology; Dead Sea Branch

Projects: Flood monitoring, data management, gathering of information regarding hydrology-infrastructure in the Dead Sea, fieldwork focusing on erosional processes in Nahal David and Kedem, fieldwork in Nahal Ashalim, fieldwork in research and development of flood monitoring methods using remote sensing methodologies.

Who we are

Our Partners

Past research in the branch

Community outreach and education

Conservation and monitoring nature

Archeology with a focus on the Dead Sea region

Remote sensing

The Skin Research Institute

Clinical studies in Dead Sea climatotherapy

Microbiology

Ecology of the Dead Sea

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Hydrology of desert water and the Dead Sea Basin